English as a Communication Language

Overview The speaking and writing of English as a communication language is now widespread with all the world continents well represented in most countries. Hence, it has grown to be a vital tool of communication on a global scale. The advent and advances made in the field of technology such as the invention of information tools namely internet, electronic mail, fax and telephone has accelerated the use of English language by far and wide.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on English as a Communication Language specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More People from various backgrounds and all walks of life seem to be embracing the use of English in their day-to-day lives. In addition, it is quite evident that the form in which most scientific-based data is stored and retrieved is in form of English. Specifically, it is also profound to note that over 80 percent of stored data has been expressed in English (Jenkins, 2002, p.90). The past four centuries or so has also witnessed growth and spread of English language to an extent that is has infiltrated in locations where it is not an original mother tongue in spite of the frequent usage. Hence, it is highly likely that English speakers in the outer circle definitely outnumber those in the inner circle. In this respect, the outer circle implies the English speakers who reside on the Diaspora and were once colonised by Britain while the inner circle are speakers reside in Britain and uses English as their mother tongue (Jenkins, 2006, p.166). One interesting thing to note that is that those who use English in the outer circle as a medium of communication have customised the language in order to fit the local cultural, institutional and professional needs. In other words, they have become Englishers in a variety of way as far as the language is concerned. In fact, this is the origin of such terminologies like Kenyan English, Malaysian English, U.S English and s o on. Nevertheless, countries that belong in the Expanding Circles category have undoubtedly experienced vast growth in English language. Case examples include Continental Europe, Brazil, Thailand, Japan and China. In spite the widespread use of English the aforementioned countries, it is probable that the institutional functions of the language are not heavily felt in a similar way it is being experienced in learning institutions right from primary, secondary to tertiary institutions (Deterding Kirkpatrick, 2006, p.396). The reason behind this is the fact that English has been considered for long as a foreign language in the Expanding Circles and therefore only suitable as an official medium of communication with the native English speakers.  However, times have passed when English language was merely learnt and used for the sole purpose of communicating with the original speakers.Advertising Looking for essay on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is currently being used, both socially and professionally, as a lingua franca and an inevitable tool for interacting with all and sundry. This paper will compare and contrast the various spoken World Englishes with English as a Lingua Franca as well as deliberate on the merits and demerits of adopting the different frameworks in both the written and spoken English. Finally, the paper will offer an incisive look into the art of teaching English as a Lingua Franca in classrooms and whether it should be embraced or not. Comparison of World Englishes with English As already mentioned the native English language has transcended borders and adopted by various non-English speakers as a mode of communicating with those whose mother tongue is English. Needless to say, the language has been made familiar in various social and cultural backgrounds and is consequently being used as a global language, better referred to as the lingua franca of the world. Peop le from mixed backgrounds can now communicate with ease through English in spite of the fact that the language has been ‘personalised’ in an attempt to fit the local needs. Nonetheless, the emerging area of debate by most linguistic scholars in as far as qualifying English as a lingua franca is whether the native speakers of English can linguistically fit into the myriad of English hybrids that has been borne out of necessity. Some critics believe that the integration of English as a lingua franca, by far and large, excludes the native speakers who may not change their language tastes and preferences for the sake of non-native speakers.  Due to divergent points of view on whether English language can be treated as a lingua franca or not, then it is imperative to first of all explore the different possible features that may perhaps, qualify English language as a lingua franca. There are two major forms that have been considered in the study of English as a lingua franc a. These are phonology and lexicogrammar. In the latter case, the third person is zero marked with –s in the present tense. It is most commonly used by the East Asian speakers of English language as lingua franca. According to the lingua franca perspective, the zero marking of the third person-s is often considered to be mistake of omission. It is unanimously agreed that the inclusion of –s is a mistake common among the non-native speakers and for a long period now, this form of linguistic failure is being corrected with the need to harmonise the world Englishes with the native one (Jenkins, 2002, p.88).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on English as a Communication Language specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The problem associated with the use of unilateral idioms in ordinary conversations is a similar feature in both the native and non-native speakers of English. This has been found to be the major cau se of intelligibility especially among English speakers in the Expanding Circles. Although both the native and non-native speaker will definitely understand each other when communicating, the introduction of unilateral idiomatic expressions may indeed be a challenge to the other speaker who does not understand the underlying meaning. Nonetheless, we may make a perfect assumption that idiomatic expressions that are used in Britain or America do not cross the borders to locations where English is used as a lingua franca with customised meanings and applications. In some cases though, idiomaticity has been a major cause of concern among the Outer Circle group of non-native speakers. In terms of phonology, most non-native speakers have found themselves in a tight situation whereby they are not in a position to linguistically use the right accent as expected by the original norms in English speaking. Indeed, there are certain aspects of pronunciation in native English that cause gross in telligibility in the usage of English as a lingua franca. A case in point is the regular use of feeble formats of English language alongside other language elements that may affect understanding communication between two or more parties (Smit, 2010, p.43). For instance, assimilation and elision of parts of speech may notably affect the pronunciation of spoken words. Although patterns in pronunciation is usually a marked difference between English as a lingua franca and the native English language, it may not necessarily be used to completely refute the fact the non-native speakers can also use perfect English in a skilled way just like their native counterparts. Similarities and differences Can English lingua franca speakers be reliable in the use of English language for communication? Perhaps, this is part of the debate we should roll in even as we move towards investigating whether world Englishes can be taught in classrooms. Recent research on the use of English as lingua franca clearly demonstrates that the non-native speakers who are also regular users of English can indeed be skilful in the use of English language (Jenkins, n.d, pp.43-44). They are equally developing their norms that do not seriously diverge from the norms in native English but seems to follow native formats with slight deviations. At this point, another difference emerge among the lingua franca speakers who may not be thoroughly proficient. For instance, it has been found out that the lingua franca English speakers are broad-based in their use of English language as a mode of communication.Advertising Looking for essay on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Unlike in the application of purely British or American English, the lingua Franca is able to accommodate a wide array of various World Englishes without being too restrictive on only type (Deterding Kirkpatrick, 2006, p.397). It is against this backdrop that the non-native speakers who have acquired the requisite skills and knowledge in English as lingua franca have a higher probability of interacting with a bigger linguistic society compared to the native speakers who are strict on a single traditional norm value in original English. Definitely, supporting argument that can be put forward is the fact that like any other language across the world, English has undergone significant structural transformations over the centuries.  The integration of world Englishes in the daily use across various locations on the globe is indeed a consequence of the changing nature of what used to be known as Standard English (Jenkins, n.d, p. 44). The number of non- speakers is currently far much beyond that of the native speakers with the growth being experienced especially in the Diaspora. Another interesting revelation, which is also a marked difference between the standard English and that of lingua franca is that unlike in native English, users in different locations are switching to other forms of English (which is of course not standard) that they can not only use easily, but also interpret and understand in a less complicated way. It is definite then that the standard British English has for a long time posed myriad of difficulties in usage owing to complicated structure. As a result, various English lingua franca speakers have opted for easer formats that they can quickly assimilate while at the same time communicate successfully with other parties. However, inasmuch as changes in the standard native English may be inevitable, there is still the need of keeping some standards to rules governing sentence structure, pronunciation, orthography, lexis as well as grammar since the language may not be prescribed in any format if it is to quench the linguistic thirst of interacting with the world at large (Smit, 2010, p.43). The native English has quite a number of differences that emerge on the surface usage as compared to the English as a multiple of world languages. Better still; the concept of Standard English may be quite a challenge to fully define as a separate entity to English as a lingua franca. One of the presumably marked differences is that Standard English strictly adheres to the conventional rules of grammar and vocabulary. Beyond this characteristic of Standard English is a mere debate on the so-called superiority of the language especially in regard to how it is held in high esteem in the Cradle land. But even so, it is still worth to mention that regions that have using world Englishes, of course with the exception of a few, still adhere to the basic an sometimes advanced rules on the style, pronunciation and grammar use. Countries within the Outer Expanding Circle bracket still face the unending challenge of which English model they can use in classroom teaching to deliver content. Mostly likely, the debate on the language suitability for classroom renditions has persisted for long due to more focus being shifted more towards ideological and political grounds rather than on matters related to education. Precisely, ideological interests have taken centre stage with some theorists arguing that the seemingly coercive use of Standard English is a plot by the Anglo-Americans to advance their political and social interests across the world as a means of seeking for supremacy through proxy linguistic control and imperialism. On the other hand, there are those who hold a different opinion in the sense that it is upon the consumers of English to choose the model of English they prefer most as a medium of communication. Hence, the exonormative speaker model is considered to be a striking the balance at this point. This aforementioned model can be readily influenced in situations where international publishers find it profitable or a lucrative commercial venture to publish books and other learning materials that using an English model that is highly favoured in the given region (Deterding Kirkpatrick, 2006, p.394). In most cases, the native model is preferred by most publishers since such materials can easily secure international markets. However, this does not imply that publishers’ preference dictates the English model that can be introduced and taught in classrooms. Advantages and disadvantages To begin with, native English tends to maintain the most up-to-date English structure, both spoken and written. Hence, native English provided a robust framework and foundation especially for beginners in the learning of English language. Such a strong language platform is indeed advantageous in the sense that it offers the learner an early opportunity to experience the real patterns, tone and st ructure of the language, a foundation that cannot be easily weakened at any point of the learning process. Additionally, it is also a merit for learners who have an intent desire to go deeper in terms of interacting with native speakers and understand their in-depth linguistic culture. Although there is nothing strange with this English learning model, it should be note that such learning needs only caters for a small fraction of English speakers especially in the Outer and Expanding Circle regions (Jenkins, 2002, p.89). Countries found in this category mainly comprise of English learners who are largely interested with gaining basic language skills and competences so that they can be able to exchange communication with their acquaintances. A codified native speaker standard is also presumed to be advantageous in the sense that it ascertains comprehensibility at the international level. To some, various mutually unintelligible languages will be developed when nativized variety is em braced. Hence, it is not possible for different dialects of English to be developed with this case in point, and therefore it is more linguistically profitable to adopt it in classroom deliveries. For the codified speaker standard of English, the likely beneficiaries are those who already speak the native speaker variety. Moreover, the English community in the Outer and Expanding Circle countries will reap more advantages with use of this form of English, although it is not totally obvious or definite whether such an outcome is possible in all scenarios. Teaching world Englishes and English as a lingua franca There is less international intelligibility in the nativized variety of English compared to native speaker varieties. Thus, any English classroom should not target performance based on native or Standard English standards since embracing such a case will be a false premise (Guido, 2008, p.37). It is also likely that the native British English is stress-timed and may discourage learners from gaining the full advantage of English as a language irrespective of the model used. For the native speaker norms, it has been found that the local teachers of English find it difficult to cope with the extremely high demands and expectations of the native speaking norms and as a result, they are disregarded. The subsequent reaction is a teacher of English language who is not respected as well as lacks self confidence. Native students, too, find it difficult to cope with the accent of the teacher and sometimes fail to attain the learning objectives set out in the syllabus (Deterding Kirkpatrick, 2006, p.396).  While the historical authority is provided for by the native speaker model of English, it is integral to note that standards, codification and power are all linked to this advantage. The fact that the native speaker varieties of English have a history and that they can be codified does not imply their utmost suitability for all groups of English learners. It is vital to note that there is a wider regional diversity of language use and speech in Old mother countries than the colonial giants that saw their birth. Although history and variety are inseparable and indeed important when creating one another, it should be noted that codification is not a necessity in variety or language. This can also be emphasised by the very changing nature of any language in which English is not an exception. It is also against this backdrop that classroom teaching should not merely rely on native speaker model but also embrace the various parts of the world Englishes as a way of exhibiting growth and variety (Kirkpatrick, n.d, p.79). Moreover, the changing nature of English language itself without the interference of the English learning and speaking societies, has injected new ideas on how the language can be made better as a tool of communication not just locally but also across national boundaries. In simple terms, although use of English as a lingua pres ents much challenge especially among the native speakers, it is onerous to point out that classroom teaching will equally benefit from a medium of communication that is liked and enjoyed by both pupils an teachers. Besides, it will provide a habitable ground for growth of English as a lingua franca since teachers (who are not native speakers but teaching in native speaking countries) will no longer lose their morale as a result of being looked down upon by native speakers(Mair, 2003, p.71).  To date, there is a vivid gap that exists between English speakers who belong in the Outer and Inner Circles. The problem is that the non-native speakers have been identified as relatively lax in identifying with the inner circle group. Worse still, they are unable (those in the Outer Circles) to pursue the exonormative variety norms, an experience common in the Inner Circle. If such a theory on the difference between world Englishes and Standard English is anything to go, then it is high time the language policy was revised to cater for the growing language gap and preferences between the natives and non-natives (Kirkpatrick, 2010, pp.30-31). By fact, the most ready and perhaps vital way to achieve this undertaking is by fully embracing the teaching of English language in whatever form that do not significantly deviates from the conventional English. It is also profound to note that the sociolinguistic reality of the world Englishes itself does not in any way, identify with the norms of native English speaking. What is of great importance even as we propose the teaching of lingua franca English in classrooms is that the latter assists not just in the growth of this renown world language, it also puts in place a platform through interested learners can be equipped with the necessary tools to be able to communicate as well as interact with the world with much ease. To say the least, one of the most outstanding quality in any language is the ability to understand and appre ciate the disseminated speech, whether written or verbal. If world Englishes are able to accomplish this broad mission, then it is of no use to restrict the delivery of classroom content using English prefabricated in the Diaspora.  Another holistic experience that can be gained from Englishes of the world is the bilingual platform advantage. The main weakness, so to speak, of nativity in English language is the open-end bias (Mair, 2003, p.88). This has been demonstrated on the phrase that is becoming common, the linguistic imperialism. As an umbrella label, the term World Englishes has been used to describe the various approaches used to analysis the different forms of English language that have been adopted in different parts of the world. There are quite a number of interpretations that can be given to this term, this being just one of them. However, the emerging forms of English in regions such as the Caribbean, Asia and Africa have also been put under the umbrella of World E nglishes. Although this is being considered as a narrow scope of describing the terminology, the latest application of the term has largely inclined towards this definition. Unfortunately, the second definition has been used in a derogatory manner by the English language imperialists, a phenomenon that has impeded classroom teaching using World Englishes (Bhatt, n.d, p.35).  Emphatically, it is paramount to reiterate that the main reason why learners will go through the process of equipping themselves with skills and competences of the English language is to be able to exchange communication with other non-native speakers. After revisiting each of the available models that have been hitherto put forward, it is definite that the lingua franca model clearly stands out as the most applicable English language framework that can be used to enlighten learners who desire o learn the language basics. One outstanding advantage of using the lingua franca model is that it does not lie within any of the extremes namely a unilateral and autocratic model or the rigid ‘correct’ norms as outlined in the Standard native English. Nonetheless, teachers and learners may still be compelled to rely on either nativized of native speaker models if they are not fully provided with sufficient discussion of lingua franca model. At this point, we are not attempting to refute the fact that the other two models are null and void as far as the advancement of English language is concerned.   The major disadvantage of the two models is that they only appeal to a smaller group of learners, which imply that the large group do not benefit at the expense of a few. Should this be the case especially in a classroom set up where the majority of learners are non-native speakers, then it goes without saying that adopting English as a holistic medium of communication in its lingua franca format is the way to go if all and sundry are to benefit.  Finally, cultural inappropriacy is als o a common shortfall especially with the nativized model of learning English. References Bhatt, R.M. n.d. Expert Discourses, local practices and Hybridity: The case of Indian Englishes, Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Deterding, D Kirkpatrick, A. 2006. Emerging south-east Asian Englishes and intelligibility, Word Englishes, 25(3/4): 391- 406. Guido, M.G. 2008. English as a lingua franca in cross-cultural immigration domains, Postfach: international academic publishers. Jenkins, J. A. 2002. Socio-linguistically Based, En1pirically Researched Pronunciation Syllabus for English as an International Language. Applied Linguistics, 23(1): 83 103. Jenkins, J. 2006. Current Perspectives on Teaching World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca, TESOL Quarterly, 40(1)157-181. Jenkins, J. n.d. Exploring Attitudes towards English as a Lingua Franca in the East Asian Context. Global Englishes in Asian Contexts: Current and Future Debates, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Kirkpatrick. A. 2010. English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN: A Multilingual Model, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Kirkpatrick, A. n.d. Which model of English: Native speaker, Nativzed or lingua Franca? Perth: Curtin University of Technology Press. Mair, C. 2003.The politics of English as a world language, New York: Rodopi B.V. Smit, U. 2010. English as a Lingua Franca in Higher Education: A Longitudinal Study of classroom discourse, New York: Walter De Gruyter. This essay on English as a Communication Language was written and submitted by user GitHoskins to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Communication Ethics

Ethics has to do with the gray areas in our lives. When moral decisions are black and white, knowing what we should do is easy. We may not live up to our convictions all the time, but there’s no question in our mind what we ought to do. The ethical theories outlined in this chapter offer guidance on how to communicate with integrity in each situation. All but the final theory fit into one of three distinctive approaches to moral decision making. The first two theories look at the consequences of behavior. Can a lie end up doing good or preventing harm? The next three theories focus on the rightness of an act regardless of whether or not it benefits the people involved. Is falsehood ever fair or just? Is it always our duty to be honest? The next group of three theories concentrates on the inner motives and character traits that make a person moral. Is the desire to tell the truth a virtue? The final theory raises the possibility that men and women could (and perhaps should) have separate ethical standards. ETHICAL EGOISM: EPICURUS Cynics maintain that people care only about themselves, that everybody is looking out for number one. Ethical egoists say that’s the way it ought to be. Everyone should promote his or her own self-interest. The boundaries of an egoist’s ethical system include only one person. Writing a few years after Aristotle’s death, Epicurus defined the good life as getting as much pleasure as possible: "I spit on the noble and its idle admirers when it contains no element of pleasure."1 Although his position is often associated with the adage "eat, drink, and be merry," Epicurus actually emphasized the passive pleasures of friendship, good digestion and, above all, the absence of pain. He cautioned that "no pleasure is in itself evil, but the things which produce certain pleasures entail annoyances many times greater than the pleasures themselves."2 The Greek philosopher put lying in that category. ... Free Essays on Communication Ethics Free Essays on Communication Ethics Ethics has to do with the gray areas in our lives. When moral decisions are black and white, knowing what we should do is easy. We may not live up to our convictions all the time, but there’s no question in our mind what we ought to do. The ethical theories outlined in this chapter offer guidance on how to communicate with integrity in each situation. All but the final theory fit into one of three distinctive approaches to moral decision making. The first two theories look at the consequences of behavior. Can a lie end up doing good or preventing harm? The next three theories focus on the rightness of an act regardless of whether or not it benefits the people involved. Is falsehood ever fair or just? Is it always our duty to be honest? The next group of three theories concentrates on the inner motives and character traits that make a person moral. Is the desire to tell the truth a virtue? The final theory raises the possibility that men and women could (and perhaps should) have separate ethical standards. ETHICAL EGOISM: EPICURUS Cynics maintain that people care only about themselves, that everybody is looking out for number one. Ethical egoists say that’s the way it ought to be. Everyone should promote his or her own self-interest. The boundaries of an egoist’s ethical system include only one person. Writing a few years after Aristotle’s death, Epicurus defined the good life as getting as much pleasure as possible: "I spit on the noble and its idle admirers when it contains no element of pleasure."1 Although his position is often associated with the adage "eat, drink, and be merry," Epicurus actually emphasized the passive pleasures of friendship, good digestion and, above all, the absence of pain. He cautioned that "no pleasure is in itself evil, but the things which produce certain pleasures entail annoyances many times greater than the pleasures themselves."2 The Greek philosopher put lying in that category. ...

Answer the questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 3

Answer the questions - Assignment Example This is because of the ease it presents to the organizations when carrying out the market survey. It is important to note that ethical considerations should be considered during the survey. The level of accuracy of the information from the survey is useful to the organizations as it is used for decision making process. The nature of information required is also an important factor that determines the approach to be used during the market research. This is considering that some of the information may be sensitive and it may require the organization to make immediate changes. The cost involved in carrying out the market research is also a factor that determines the approach that should be taken when carrying out a market research. Focus group is also an approach that is commonly used in the market research. The use of focus groups involves initiating a discussion among a group of people in order to obtain their views regarding a particular issue of concern in the market. The use of focus group may however be ineffective as it is only limited to a group of people. However, it can provide market information within a short period of time. A personal interview is also an approach that is used for the purposes of carrying out a market research. Personal interview may involve a one on one interview with the customers in the market. Open ended and unstructured questions are commonly used during the personal interviews. The disadvantage of the method is that it takes a lot of time and cost to collect information. The method is not effective when dealing with a l arge group of people. A high level of accuracy is however required regardless of the approach that is taken during the market research. The information should be analyzed in a professional manner in order to facilitate decision making process. Most of the people make their decisions based on their emotions. Most of the organizations have discovered the power of emotions during

Do pesticide residues in food pose a significant risk to consumer Essay

Do pesticide residues in food pose a significant risk to consumer health - Essay Example Moreover, those involved in pesticides application are also protected by modern EU regulation on pesticides. What is more important is the finding that personal protection of individuals against pesticides in food together with EU regulations guarantees human health protection. These conclusions were made on the basis of literature review of contemporary scientific works and researches (books, scientific journals, texts of EU regulations, on-line journal articles, statistic data etc). Thus a holistic approach to reduction of harm caused by pesticides in food is the only one possible way out to save our harvests and lives. Introduction Fruits and vegetables are known all over the world as the healthiest food. This kind of nutrition enforces human organism in order it could resist cancer and heart attacks (Weichenthal, Moase and Chan, 2010). Fruits and vegetables are considered full of vitamins and minerals. Different phytochemicals and fiber of fruits and vegetables build a protective shell inside a human organism. Unfortunately, the world is developing at full speed, population is growing and developed technologies enable food producers to enrich harvest to the greatest extent. For this purpose agricultural sector is focused on pesticide usage in fruits and vegetables nurture. ... In accordance with the latest data, America is stricken by a burst of illnesses, such as â€Å"hepatitis A from strawberries,  Cyclospora  from raspberries, and E. coli- infection from alfalfa sprouts and lettuce† (Alarcon et al. 2005, p.456). Pesticides in food: risk measurement Availability of pesticide tests in America leaves much to be desired. Carcinogenicity as a damaging effect caused by pesticides is acclaimed in America and such kind of tests is usually conducted. What about reproductive effects and other chronic diseases? Less than 21% of pesticides used in America have been tested and of course public is not sure whether it consumes healthy or hazardous food (No Evidence of Health Benefits 2009). A lack of proper financing restricts pesticide testing in America. It is possible to suppose that every consumer of fruits and vegetables is potentially at risk and is not even aware of the real hazard caused by pesticides. Farmers are at the greatest risk, because they work with pesticides directly. In accordance with statistics, farmers, railroads and electrical lines workers suffer from leukemia or cancer of the lymphatic system (No Evidence of Health Benefits 2009). Lung cancer is a disease which is often met among pesticide applicators while farm workers suffer from liver cancer and leukemia. In accordance with researches conducted by German scientists and researchers, usage of pesticides, PCBs, dioxin act hazardously as well as endocrine disrupters do. Moreover, the most dangerous types of food are â€Å"strawberries, cherries, apples, Mexican cantaloupe, Chilean grapes, raspberries, apricots, peas, peaches, nectarines, and spinach† (Castorina et al. 2010, p. 18). These types of food are exposed

The Events That Led To the Collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce Essay

The Events That Led To the Collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce (BCCI) - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI) was an international bank founded in 1972 by Agha Hassan Abedi. Agha was a Pakistani financier who had previously set the United Bank of Pakistan in 1959. Before the United Bank was nationalized in 1974, he created another supranational banking entity, the BCCI. The bank was registered in Luxemburg with head offices in Karachi and London and Swaleh Naqvi became the banks chief. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the ruler of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates provided capital that was used to start BCCI. It was structured in a way that no country had overall regulatory supervision over it so as to allow potential growth and expansion of opportunities. It expanded rapidly in the 1970’s and by 1980; BCCI was reported to have assets of over $4 billion with over 150 branches in 46 countries. The BCCI scandal and criminality included fraud which involved millions of dollars from the customers, money laundering in different continents, support of terrorism, trafficking of arms and sale of nuclear technologies, management of prostitution, commission and facilitation of income tax evasion, smuggling and illegal immigration and illicit purchase of banks and real estate. BCCI was focused on serving Muslims and third world clients and the quadrupling of oil prices in 1973- 1974 led to huge deposits by Arab oil producers. However, its complex registration that involved Luxemburg registration, London headquarters, Middle East shareholders and worldwide operations made it impossible for outsiders to grapple what was going on within the bank. The structure was conceived by Abedi and managed by Naqvi with the specific purpose of evading regulation or any control by governments of the concerned nations. From its earliest days, BCCI was made up of multiplying layers of entities, related to one another through an impermeable series of holding companies, affiliates, subs idiaries, banks within banks, insider dealings and nominee relationships. Activities such as corporate structure, record keeping, regulatory review, and audits were fractured so that they can evade ordinary legal restrictions and movement of capital and goods.

The concepts of Taylorism and Fordism

The concepts of Taylorism and Fordism Taylorism is the attempt to make business decisions on the basis of data that is researched and tested quantitatively. Taylorism was advocated by Frederick Winslow Taylor, He considered it to be managements duty to identify ways in which costs could be accounted for precisely, so that efficiency could be improved. Fordism is the application of Henry fords faith in mass production run by autocratic management. This implies high division of labour and little workplace democracy, but with the consolation of high wages. Henry Ford was highly influenced by efficiency expert Frederick Taylor, he was the first to use scientific management techniques at his factory, Taylorism meant dividing vehicle production into uncomplicated repetitive steps there would be no need for skilled workers, men could learn to do any job quickly. In 1913 Ford introduced his most revolutionary change yet, his idea was, instead of workers moving around to assemble the product, why not get the product to move past the workers and thus he created the assembly line. Soon assembly lines were operational in fords factory. The lines became the key to mass production, a system that would remain nearly unchanged for most of the century. Few stood the pace of the mass production, workers began to quit, but ford was making record profits, so he could afford to increase pay. Henry Ford introduced the opportunity for a new pay system which was entirely different from Taylorism. It was a simple rule high pay for hard work. The new production methods which emerged in the early twentieth century were theorised initially, in 1911, by F. W. Taylor. Taylor coined his approach Scientific Management. Taylor had been trained as an engineer in a steel works. Taylor emphasised cooperation between management and workers. He aimed to increase productivity through reducing inefficiency caused, for example, by malfeasance. Believed that eliminating malfeasance would result in higher wages, shorter working hours, and better working conditions (Taylor, 1967, 15). Scientific management engaged a number of advances e.g. time and motion studies Division of labour is a process where you Break a job down into small, repetitive fragments, each of which can be done at speed by workers with little formal training. (David Lines, Ian Marcouse Barry Martin, 2006) The implications of the wage system is in equilibrium the quantity of labour demanded will be the same as the quantity of labour supplied so, the market will clear and there will be no unemployment. However, by paying an efficiency-wage, above the equilibrium wage rate, the labour market is thrown into disequilibrium, creating unemployment. Taylor used his time-and-motion studies to develop a productive division of labour system. Taylor argued that even the most basic, mindless tasks could be planned in a way that dramatically would increase productivity, and that scientific management of the work was more effective than the initiative and incentive method of motivating workers. The initiative and incentive method offered an incentive to increase productivity but placed the responsibility on the worker to figure out how to do it. To scientifically determine the optimal way to perform a job, Taylor performed experiments that he called  time studies, (also known as  time and motion studies). These studies were characterized by the use of a stopwatch to time a workers sequence of motions, with the goal of determining the one best way to perform a job. It was supported on the division of work, this breaks down the industrial processes into several simple operations that could be precisely timed and organised. Taylor advocated bureaucratization of the shop floor (through time and motion study) as a means to solve the problems of coordination and reintegration raised by the increasingly complex division of labour. (Ash Amin, 1996) A well applied Taylor system would improve the labour returns, although an important limitation of Taylorism is that it treats people like machines, or even (economic) animals, whereas they do not want to be treated as though they were. It is very monotonous work with little space for any creativity. In contrast with Taylor, Ford has a great insight in the market factors, he saw and exploited the fact that mass production needs mass markets. With Fordism every worker has a specific task in a limited space, while the car bodies moved along the assembly line. But the maximised productive efficiency of the assembly line production had its drawbacks. The main problems were the extremely high rates of absenteeism and labour turnover. The costs of these problems even exceeded the very low training costs of the workers. Another problem for Fordism like production plants is that the set up is extremely expensive, and it is also very difficult to alter a product because of the standardization. T>F or F>T because(150) Bi Taylor and Ford were respectively the main thinker and practitioner of scientific management / managerial control based in deskilling / decomposition. Taylorism / scientific management: an attempt to transform the organisation of work to enhance profitability and to reduce work control based in craft skills. The gap between management and labour therefore grew vastly when the management took control of organising the labour proccess. No longer was the skilled worker irreplacable. Now one worker was much the same as another, in fact the less skilled the worker the better in Taylorist factories. Stifles creativity   Places people in vertical skill pipelines Reduces workforce flexibility demotivates many individuals Reduces teamwork Promotes boredom and staff churn Treats people as wealth producing units Promotes a division between workers and management Depending on your outlook, promotes unionism and collective bargaining Fordism is the organisation of work which extends the dynamics of Taylorism and in particular is centred on the use of the assembly-line. More broadly Fordism can be thought of as operating at the social level and centres on state efforts to harmonise mass production and mass consumption. Changes in patterns of consumption would therefore require changes in the work organization or else render Fordist production inappropriate. Some commentators have argued that such changes in consumption occurred towards the end of the twentieth century, and that now people are increasingly demanding specialized rather than standardized goods.   They argue that instead of mass markets, there are niche markets, and that, to supply these markets, work must be organized in new ways which allow for greater flexibility. They label this new approach  post-Fordism. the main changes from Fordism to post Fordism are flexible production or flexible specialization, customized production , vertical disintegration, cooperative network structure, creativity and innovation, new labour division.   Taylorism and  Fordism  increasing productivity at the expense of employee job satisfaction   Secondly, Fordism is a regime of accumulation. As a stable mode of macroeconomic growth it involves a virtuous circle of growth based on mass production, rising incomes linked to productivity, rising productivity based on economies of scale, increased mass demand due to rising wages, increased profits based on full utilisation of productive capacity and increased investment in improved mass production equipment and techniques. as a mode of regulation, Fordism appears linked to the Taylorist concepts and involves the separation of ownership from control in large corporations with a distinctive multi-divisional, decentralised organization subject to central controls. Thus, it is a mode of social and economic regulation that can also involve monopoly pricing, union recognition and collective bargaining, wages connected to productivity growth and retail price inflation with monetary emission and credit policies orientated to securing effective aggregate demand. Fordism can be seen as a general pattern of social organization. In this context it involves the consumption of standardised, mass commodities in nuclear family households and provision of collective, standardised goods and services by the bureaucratic state. It also manages the conflicts between capital and labour over both the individual and social wage the Taylorist organization of work: increasing intensification of work, deskilling, monotony and alienation lead to forms of resistance which affects the level of the regulatory interest-bureaucracy and increases costs regarding absenteeism, sloppiness and sabotage; Taylorism altered the way work takes place by(175) Fordism altered the way work takes place by(175) T>F or F>T because(150) Taylorism had a widespread influence, but in Japan working in teams was very important Both Taylorism and Fordism are justified in terms of enhancing production / profits but both require links to mass consumption. Both require large-scale production (and hence large-scale consumption) to be viable.   Most effective overall in extending Smiths division of labour altering the way in which work takes place(250) Taylorism was a tool for monopoly capital to strengthen its position

The Arrival of the Bee Box and the Rime of the Ancient Mariner :: English Literature

In The Arrival of the Bee Box and the Rime of the Ancient Mariner, compare the ways in which the choice of language, detail and the form, tell us about the feelings of the writer. In both poems, a range of literacy devices are used in order to express the feelings of the writers. Plath's poem is written similarly to the Rime of the Ancient Mariner, and yet they are different in many ways. Plath wrote her poem in 1962 and Coleridge wrote his poem in the 1700's or early 1800's, and the style of writing differ, as Plath's writing seems to be more emotive, whereas Coleridge's work seems to have a more a gothic theme to it. One of the main literacy devices used in both poems is the extended metaphor. Plath uses the metaphor to show the box as a symbol of her life and how she wants to escape from it, but can't because of the consequences. "The box is locked, it is dangerous." I think she feels trapped within her life and the depression of everything is getting to her. She wants to get out and experience other things, but feels that she has created her life and therefore must live with it, "I ordered this, this clean wood box/ I have to live with it overnight" Possibly, this could be related to part of her past, where she tried to commit suicide, in order to end her life, so that she can be free of the box. In the Rime of the Ancient Mariner, there are many metaphors within it. As the boat travelled on its course, it came across some ice and it got stuck there. At that time the Mariner didn't know what to do. Then an Albatross came to the rescue and it cracked the ice so the mariner was able to carry on his journey, "at length did across an Albatross/thorough the fog it came; / As if it had been a Christen soul, / We hailed it in God's name. / It ate the food it ne'er had eat. / And round and round it flew./ The ice did split with a thunder fit;/ The helmsman steered us through!" I think the ice was a symbol for the limitations in life, and the barriers Coleridge has come across in life and he over come them. Also, maybe the ice was a symbol of the dangers that come with life, and once they are dealt with, you can move along safely. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is written in loose, short ballad stanzas usually either four or six lines long but, occasionally, as